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Educational website about physics
HyperPhysics is an educational website about physics topics. The information architecture of the website is based on HyperCard, the platform on which the
HyperPhysics
Scientific field of study
June 2023 at the Wayback Machine – Science videos, including physics HyperPhysics website Archived 8 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine – Physics and astronomy
Physics
Chemical compound of hydrogen and oxygen
59.5529F. doi:10.1063/1.1679903. Nave R. "Bulk Elastic Properties". HyperPhysics. Georgia State University. Archived from the original on 28 October 2007
Water
Sound whose frequency is audible to the average human
Music Theory for Dummies. For Dummies. p. 97. ISBN 9780470167946. "Hyperphysics". Retrieved 19 September 2014. Heffner, Henry; Heffner, Rickye (January
Audio_frequency
Light scattering by small particles
375–384. doi:10.1080/14786449908621276. Blue Sky and Rayleigh Scattering. Hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu. Retrieved on 2018-08-06. Rana, Farhan. "Electromagnetic
Rayleigh_scattering
Watercraft capable of independent underwater operation
Maritime National Park Association. Nave, R. "Bulk Elastic Properties". HyperPhysics. Georgia State University. Retrieved 26 October 2007. "Physics Of Liquids
Submarine
Static pressure exerted by the weight of the Earth's atmosphere
original on 6 December 2010. Retrieved 2010-11-23. Vapour Pressure, Hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu, archived from the original on 2017-09-14, retrieved
Atmospheric_pressure
Attraction of masses and energy
on 25 May 2022. Retrieved 22 May 2022. "Hafele-Keating Experiment". hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu. Archived from the original on 18 April 2017. Retrieved
Gravity
Keyboard instrument
November 2014. Retrieved 30 September 2018. Nave, Carl R. "The Piano". HyperPhysics. Archived from the original on 24 November 2014. Retrieved 19 November
Piano
Chemical element with atomic number 1 (H)
Retrieved 12 February 2008. Nave, C. R. (2006). "Deuterium-Tritium Fusion". HyperPhysics. Georgia State University. Archived from the original on 16 March 2008
Hydrogen
Important atomic emission spectra
law Quantum optics Radio recombination line "The Hydrogen 21-cm Line". Hyperphysics. Georgia State University. 2005-10-30. Retrieved 2009-03-18. Liboff,
Hydrogen_spectral_series
Mathematical model combining space and time
Retrieved 6 July 2024. Nave, R. "Energetics of Charged Pion Decay". Hyperphysics. Department of Physics and Astronomy, Georgia State University. Archived
Spacetime
Elementary particle, fundamental constituent of matter
Confinement". HyperPhysics. Georgia State University, Department of Physics and Astronomy. Retrieved 29 June 2008. R. Nave. "Quarks". HyperPhysics. Georgia
Quark
Number describing angular momentum along an axis
2010-07-20. "Hydrogen Schrodinger Equation". hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu. "Hydrogen Schrodinger Equation". hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu. Herzberg, Gerhard (1950)
Magnetic_quantum_number
Physical theory of the cosmos
Kolb & Turner 1988, chpt. 6 "Big Bang models back to Planck time". hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu. Retrieved 28 April 2020. Kolb & Turner 1988, chpt.
Big_Bang
Boson with spin equal to zero
mesons". HyperPhysics. Atlanta, GA: Georgia State University, Department of Physics and Astronomy. Retrieved 23 May 2021 – via hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu
Scalar_boson
Microscopic theory of superconductivity
attracts a lot of attention within the field of ultracold gases. The hyperphysics website pages at Georgia State University summarize some key background
BCS_theory
Interaction between subatomic particles
interaction. Harry Cheung, The Weak Force @Fermilab Fundamental Forces @Hyperphysics, Georgia State University. Brian Koberlein, What is the weak force? Archived
Weak_interaction
Daily falling of the Sun below the horizon
Encyclopedia of Modern Optics. Vol. 1. Elsevier. p. 186. "Hyperphysics, Georgia State University". Hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu. Archived from the original on
Sunset
Physical and chemical properties of pure water
59.5529F. doi:10.1063/1.1679903. Nave, R. "Bulk Elastic Properties". HyperPhysics. Georgia State University. Archived from the original on 2007-10-28.
Properties_of_water
State of matter
Animated Gas Lab. Accessed February 2008. Georgia State University. HyperPhysics. Accessed February 2008. Antony Lewis WordWeb. Accessed February 2008
Gas
Speed of sound wave through elastic medium
McGraw-Hill. 2012. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-07-179273-8. C. R. Nave. "Speed of Sound". HyperPhysics. Department of Physics and Astronomy, Georgia State University. Retrieved
Speed_of_sound
Average velocity of particles mainly moving randomly
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. p. 289. ISBN 9780138053260. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/ohmmic.html Ohm's Law, Microscopic View
Drift_velocity
Primary color
State University Department of Physics and Astronomy. "Spectral Colors". HyperPhysics site. Archived from the original on October 27, 2017. Retrieved October
Red
Recording of sound and playing it back
no. 8. Nave, Carl R. "Rod" (2001). "Noise Reduction and Tape Hiss". Hyperphysics. Archived from the original on May 8, 2021. Retrieved May 8, 2021. Millard
Sound recording and reproduction
Sound_recording_and_reproduction
BookRags, Periodic Table. World Book Encyclopedia, Exploring Earth. HyperPhysics, Georgia State University, Abundance of Elements in Earth's Crust. Eric
Abundance of elements in Earth's crust
Abundance_of_elements_in_Earth's_crust
Everything in space and time
1126/science.1126231. PMID 16675662. S2CID 14178620. "Dark Energy". Hyperphysics. Archived from the original on May 27, 2013. Retrieved January 4, 2014
Universe
Study of the practices and possibilities of music
R. (n.d.). "Frequencies for Maximum Sensitivity of Human Hearing", Hyperphysics website, Georgia State University (accessed 5 December 2014). Olson,
Music_theory
Measure of temperature relative to absolute zero
Uncertainty. NIST. May 2024. Retrieved 2024-05-18. Georgia State University, HyperPhysics Project, "Equipartition of Energy" Rankine, W. J. M., "A manual of the
Thermodynamic_temperature
Property of a mass in motion
Hyperphysics. Archived from the original on 22 August 2012. Retrieved 2 August 2012. Nave, Carl (2010). "The Franck-Hertz Experiment". Hyperphysics.
Momentum
Mass per unit volume
the original (PDF) on September 25, 2007. "Nuclear Size and Density". HyperPhysics. Georgia State University. Archived from the original on July 6, 2009
Density
Energy held by an object because of its position relative to other objects
conservative forces are gradients of a potential field. "Hyperphysics – Potential Energy". hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu. Retrieved 26 February 2025. William
Potential_energy
Chemical element with atomic number 28 (Ni)
original on May 14, 2011. Retrieved November 19, 2008. "Nuclear synthesis". hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu. Retrieved October 15, 2020. Fewell, M. P. (1995). "The
Nickel
Ability of magnetization
Nickel-alloys.net. Retrieved 2011-11-08. ""Relative Permeability", Hyperphysics". Hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu. Retrieved 2011-11-08. ""Soft Magnetic Cobalt-Iron
Permeability (electromagnetism)
Permeability_(electromagnetism)
Fundamental interaction between charged particles
org. University of Cambridge. Nave, R. "Electricity and magnetism". HyperPhysics. Georgia State University. Archived from the original on 2023-06-07.
Electromagnetism
Woodwind instrument
acoustics". UNSW Music Acoustics. Retrieved 18 January 2006. "The Flute". HyperPhysics. Retrieved 20 March 2016. Spell, Eldred (1983). "Anatomy of a Headjoint"
Flute
Elementary particle with extremely low mass
March 2016. Retrieved 24 April 2016. "Conservation of lepton number". HyperPhysics / particles. Georgia State University. Archived from the original on
Neutrino
Hypothetical travel into the past or future
Retrieved April 26, 2017. Nave, Carl Rod (2012). "Scout Rocket Experiment". HyperPhysics. Archived from the original on April 26, 2017. Retrieved April 26, 2017
Time_travel
Color between indigo and ultraviolet on the electromagnetic spectrum
State University Department of Physics and Astronomy. "Spectral Colors". HyperPhysics site. Retrieved 20 October 2017. "violet, n.1". OED Online. Oxford University
Violet_(color)
Comparison of a wide range of lengths
July 2025 (link) Nave, Carl R. "Cowan and Reines Neutrino Experiment". HyperPhysics. Retrieved 4 December 2008. (6.3 × 10−44 cm2, which gives an effective
Orders_of_magnitude_(length)
Pressure exerted by a vapor in thermodynamic equilibrium
2022-11-28. Fluid Characteristics Chart, Engineer's Edge Vapor Pressure, Hyperphysics Vapor Pressure, The MSDS HyperGlossary Online vapor pressure calculation
Vapor_pressure
Audible vibration that travels via pressure waves in matter
sound and waves (uses Flash) Archived 2012-03-13 at the Wayback Machine HyperPhysics: Sound and Hearing Introduction to the Physics of Sound Hearing curves
Sound
Stellar classification
original on 7 August 2011. Retrieved 1 June 2020. "Stellar Lifetimes". hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu. Retrieved 2024-07-20. Figueira, P.; Faria, J. P.; Silva
G-type_main-sequence_star
Phenomenon of air resonance in a cavity
Machine" (archival photograph) HyperPhysics Acoustic Laboratory Archived 2021-02-11 at the Wayback Machine HyperPhysics Cavity Resonance Archived 2021-02-10
Helmholtz_resonance
Type of quark
doi:10.1140/epjh/e2011-10047-1. S2CID 54062126. R. Nave. "Quarks". HyperPhysics. Georgia State University, Department of Physics and Astronomy. Retrieved
Up_quark
Magnesium- and iron-rich extrusive igneous rock
Klein & Hurlbut 1993, pp. 558–560. Nave, R. "Bowen's Reaction Series". Hyperphysics. Georgia State University. Retrieved 24 March 2021. Blatt & Tracy 1996
Basalt
Influence that can change motion of an object
Carl Rod. "Elasticity". HyperPhysics. University of Guelph. Retrieved 2013-10-28. Nave, Carl Rod. "Centripetal Force". HyperPhysics. University of Guelph
Force
System of complete and orthogonal polynomials
on Legendre polynomials from his personal collection of mathematics The Legendre Polynomials by Carlyle E. Moore Legendre Polynomials from Hyperphysics
Legendre_polynomials
Type of quark
Flavors by the Weak Interaction". Department of Physics and Astronomy. HyperPhysics. Atlanta, GA: Georgia State University. L. Lederman (1978). "The Upsilon
Bottom_quark
Calendar year
July 13, 2025. "The Hubble Space Telescope "Ultra Deep Field" View". hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu. Archived from the original on May 29, 2007. Retrieved
2003
Lightest color
Spectral Types Archived 2 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine, entry at hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu, accessed on line 19 June 2007. "An Introduction to
White
Measure of a substance's ability to resist or conduct electric current
Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-102153-2. (see also Table of Resistivity. hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu) John O'Malley (1992) Schaum's outline of theory and
Electrical resistivity and conductivity
Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivity
Opposition of a circuit to a current when a voltage is applied
CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4398-9807-9. OCLC 863646311. Complex impedance, Hyperphysics Horowitz, Paul; Hill, Winfield (1989). "1". The Art of Electronics. Cambridge
Electrical_impedance
Interference phenomenon of waves
wings". www.bbc.com. BBC News. Retrieved 31 August 2026. "Coronas". hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu. Retrieved 8 February 2026. "Home - Practical Astrophotography
Diffraction
Production of voltage by a varying magnetic field
(2nd ed.). John Murray. ISBN 0-7195-3382-1. Nave, C. R. "Faraday's Law". HyperPhysics. Georgia State University. Retrieved 2011-08-29. Maxwell, J. C. (1861)
Electromagnetic_induction
Electricity generation by nuclear fusion
1007/978-3-030-64344-7. ISBN 978-3-030-64343-0. "Fission and fusion can yield energy". Hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu. Retrieved October 30, 2014. Miley, G. H.; Towner, H
Fusion_power
Area of high elevation such as a mountainous region or elevated mountainous plateau
Shillong, India - 'Scotland of the east'". www.scotsman.com. Retrieved 19 February 2017. "The Highlands of Venus". HyperPhysics. Retrieved 18 July 2014.
Highland
Lowest frequency of a periodic waveform, such as sound
(PDF) on 2014-05-15. Retrieved 2012-11-27. "Standing Waves on a String". Hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu. Retrieved 2012-11-27. "Creating musical sounds". OpenLearn
Fundamental_frequency
Physical systems that don't interact with other parts of the universe
the Wayback Machine Hyperphysics, by the Department of Physics and Astronomy of Georgia State University; at http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/conser
Isolated_system
Data values of standard electrode potential
org/web/20150924015049/http://www.fptl.ru/biblioteka/spravo4niki/handbook-of-Chemistry-and-Physics.pdf http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/Hbase/tables/electpot.html#c1
Standard electrode potential (data page)
Standard_electrode_potential_(data_page)
Pre-pressed compact disc containing computer data
original on 2018-09-14. Retrieved 2013-09-23. "Audio Compact Disc Player". HyperPhysics Concepts. Archived from the original on 13 March 2024. McFadden, Andy
CD-ROM
Radioactive isotope of strontium
24 January 2014. Retrieved 14 January 2014. "Biological Half-life". HyperPhysics. Archived from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 14 January
Strontium-90
Stellar core remnant
2022.09.001. S2CID 252111027. Nave, C. R. "Nuclear Size and Density". HyperPhysics. Georgia State University. Archived from the original on 6 July 2009
White_dwarf
Range of colors with the hues between blue and magenta
State University Department of Physics and Astronomy. "Spectral Colors". HyperPhysics site. Retrieved 20 October 2017. Charles A. Poynton (2003). Digital video
Purple
Study of subatomic particles and forces
Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-285-62958-2. Nave, R. "The Color Force". HyperPhysics. Georgia State University, Department of Physics and Astronomy. Archived
Particle_physics
Non-technical introduction to topics in electromagnetism
OCLC 21447877. "Magnets and Electromagnets". hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu. Retrieved 2020-11-27. "Ferromagnetism". hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu. Retrieved 2020-11-27
Introduction to electromagnetism
Introduction_to_electromagnetism
Pair of copper hemispheres designed to demonstrate the power of atmospheric pressure
on 2008-08-03. Nave, C.R. (2000). "Original Magdeburg Hemispheres". Hyperphysics. Dept. of Physics and Astronomy, Georgia State Univ. "Magdeburg hemispheres"
Magdeburg_hemispheres
Class of musical instruments
harmonic sequence of notes with a trumpet". hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu. "The Pedal Tone". hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu. "Brass instrument (lip reed)
Brass_instrument
Time of day when the sun appears above the horizon
Encyclopedia of Modern Optics. Vol. 1. Elsevier. p. 186. "Blue Sky". Hyperphysics, Georgia State University. Archived from the original on April 27, 2012
Sunrise
Class of musical instruments with air resonator
1121/1.1912381. "Producing a harmonic sequence of notes with a trumpet". hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu. Gunnar Schmidtmann; Susanne Jahnke; Egbert J. Seidel;
Wind_instrument
Energy driving the accelerated expansion of the universe
1126/science.1126231. PMID 16675662. S2CID 14178620. "Dark Energy". Hyperphysics. Archived from the original on 27 May 2013. Retrieved 4 January 2014
Dark_energy
Number of protons or neutrons that make a nucleus particularly stable
PMC 10630140. PMID 37648757. Nave, C. R. "The Most Tightly Bound Nuclei". HyperPhysics. W., P. (October 23, 1999). "Twice-magic metal makes its debut - isotope
Magic_number_(physics)
Chemical element with atomic number 14 (Si)
(PDF) on 2012-09-07. Retrieved 2016-08-08. "Silicon and Germanium". hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu. Retrieved 2021-06-07. King, R. Bruce (1995). Inorganic
Silicon
Reaction that combines atomic nuclei
Most Tightly Bound Nuclei Archived 14 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu. Retrieved 17 August 2011. Report, Science World (23
Nuclear_fusion
Property in optics
2015-06-29. Retrieved 2023-08-13. Nave, Carl R. (2000). "Dispersion". HyperPhysics. Department of Physics and Astronomy, Georgia State University. Archived
Refractive_index
Tone with a frequency higher than the frequency of the reference tone
resonance Undertone series Xenharmonic music "Overtones and Harmonics". hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu. Retrieved 2020-10-26. Fineberg, Joshua (2000). "Guide
Overtone
Emission of electrons when electromagnetic radiation hits a material
AstronomyCast. Nave, R., "Wave-Particle Duality". HyperPhysics. "Photoelectric effect". Physics 2000. University of Colorado, Boulder
Photoelectric_effect
Main anion present in sea water
Academic Press. pp. 23–29. ISBN 978-0-12-370626-3. "Common Salts". hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu. Georgia State University. "Chlorides". www.gopetsamerica
Chloride
Maximum density of water vapor at given temperature
01528 grams/mole). Thus, we get P M/R T = m/V = density. The values shown at hyperphysics-sources indicate that the saturated vapor density is 4.85 g/m3 at 273
Saturation_vapor_density
Device
effectiveness because of this high ratio. R. Nave. "Technetium-99m". HyperPhysics. Georgia State University. The National Research Council. Medical Isotope
Technetium-99m_generator
Movement of an object's magnetic moment axis about a magnetic field
Eksperimental'noi i Teoreticheskoi Fiziki. 16 (7): 603–606. Georgia State University HyperPhysics page on Larmor Frequency Larmor Frequency Calculator
Larmor_precession
Thermodynamic process in which no mass or heat is exchanged with surroundings
University Press. pp. 185. ISBN 0-521-66624-4. "Adiabatic Process". HyperPhysics. Georgia State University. Atkins, Peter; de Paula, Giulio (2006). Atkins'
Adiabatic_process
Concept in quantum mechanics
doi:10.1119/1.1450558. ISSN 0002-9505. R. Nave. "Wave–Particle Duality". HyperPhysics. Georgia State University, Department of Physics and Astronomy. Retrieved
Wave–particle_duality
Electron energy bands which determine the electrical conductivity of a material
Retrieved 8 December 2021. Nave, Carl R. (Rod) (1999). "Band Theory for Solids". Hyperphysics. Retrieved 8 December 2021. Direct Band Gap Energy Calculator
Valence_and_conduction_bands
Molecule composed of any two atoms
). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 1-57259-491-8. Hyperphysics – Rotational Spectra of Rigid Rotor Molecules Hyperphysics – Quantum Harmonic Oscillator 3D Chem –
Diatomic_molecule
on 2023-01-17. Retrieved 2020-10-19. "The Retina of the Human Eye". hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu. Archived from the original on 2015-05-04. Retrieved
Eye
Principle in fluid mechanics
from the original on 5 April 2018. Retrieved 9 May 2018. "Pressure". hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu. Archived from the original on 28 October 2017. Retrieved
Pascal's_law
Device for controlled nuclear reactions
1007/BF00750983. S2CID 95704617. Nave, R. "Light Water Nuclear Reactors". Hyperphysics. Georgia State University. Archived from the original on 3 December 2017
Nuclear_reactor
Medical imaging technique
Secaucus, NJ: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-1-85233-798-8. "Nuclear Medicine". hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu. Retrieved 11 December 2022. Carlson N (22 January 2012)
Positron_emission_tomography
High-energy particle, mainly originating outside the Solar System
Nave, Carl R. (ed.). "Cosmic rays". Physics and Astronomy Department. HyperPhysics. Georgia State University. Retrieved 17 February 2013. Malley, Marjorie
Cosmic_ray
Conserved physical quantity; rotational analogue of linear momentum
Astronomy, Georgia State University. "Moment of Inertia: Thin Disk". HyperPhysics. Retrieved 17 March 2023. Wilson, E. B. (1915). "Linear Momentum, Kinetic
Angular_momentum
Physical characteristic of oscillating systems
Greene, Brian, "Resonance in strings". The Elegant Universe, NOVA (PBS) Hyperphysics section on resonance concepts Resonance versus resonant (usage of terms)
Resonance
State of matter
Education. p. 461. ISBN 978-0-07-304859-8. "Compressibility of Liquids". hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu. Archived from the original on 7 December 2017. Retrieved
Liquid
Property of space that quantifies the magnetic influence at a given location
Archived 30 April 2010 at the Wayback Machine". Nave, R., "Magnetic Field". HyperPhysics. "Magnetism", The Magnetic Field (archived 9 July 2006). theory.uwinnipeg
Magnetic_field
Elementary particle that mediates the strong force
Bibcode:1995PhLB..345..524Y. doi:10.1016/0370-2693(94)01677-5. "Gluons". hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu. Retrieved 2023-09-02. Gell-Mann, Murray (1997). "Feynman's
Gluon
p. 148. ISBN 978-0-7503-0718-5. Nave, Carl R. (2010). "Bar Magnet". Hyperphysics. Dept. of Physics and Astronomy, Georgia State Univ. Retrieved 2011-04-10
Earth's_magnetic_field
Electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths from 1 m to 1 mm
Protection. raytheon.com Nave, Rod. "Interaction of Radiation with Matter". HyperPhysics. Retrieved 20 October 2014. Goldsmith, JR (December 1997). "Epidemiologic
Microwave
Unit of length about the size of a hydrogen atom
ISBN 0-13-124405-1 Nave, Rod. "The Most Probable Radius: Hydrogen Ground State". HyperPhysics. Dept. of Physics and Astronomy, Georgia State University. Retrieved
Bohr_radius
Flow where fluid particles follow smooth paths in layers
1203223. PMID 21737736. S2CID 22560587. Nave, R. (2005). "Laminar Flow". HyperPhysics. Georgia State University. Archived from the original on 19 February
Laminar_flow
Russian Federation Crystran, United Kingdom Jena University, Germany Hyperphysics list of refractive indices Luxpop: Index of refraction values and photonics
List_of_refractive_indices
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