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Charge modulation spectroscopy is an electro-optical spectroscopy technique tool. It is used to study the charge carrier behavior of organic field-effect
Charge modulation spectroscopy
Charge_modulation_spectroscopy
Range of spectroscopic analysis
air-fuel ratio. Applied spectroscopy Benesi–Hildebrand method Color – Vis spectroscopy with the human eye Charge modulation spectroscopy DU spectrophotometer
Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy
Ultraviolet–visible_spectroscopy
Spectroscopy with lasers with very short pulses
Ultrafast laser spectroscopy is a category of spectroscopic techniques using ultrashort pulse lasers for the study of dynamics on extremely short time
Ultrafast_laser_spectroscopy
Type of spectroanalytical procedure
Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) is an elemental analysis method for determining the concentration of metals in a given sample. The principle of AAS
Atomic absorption spectroscopy
Atomic_absorption_spectroscopy
Type of field-effect transistor
this layer leading to electroluminescence from the tetracene. Charge modulation spectroscopy OLED Organic electronics Oxide thin-film transistor Thin film
Organic field-effect transistor
Organic_field-effect_transistor
Optical imaging technique
excitation source using deep convolutional neural networks. Charge modulation spectroscopy Deconvolution Fluorescence microscope Focused ion beam Focus
Confocal_microscopy
Molecule investigation technique
Terahertz spectroscopy refers to spectroscopic techniques that probe materials using electromagnetic radiation in the terahertz (THz) region, typically
Terahertz_spectroscopy
Experimental techniques to characterize semiconductor devices and materials
Absorption or transmission spectroscopy Raman spectroscopy Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy Reflectance modulation Cathodoluminescence Electron
Semiconductor characterization techniques
Semiconductor_characterization_techniques
Technical applications of optics
manipulation of light in the form of photons through emission, transmission, modulation, signal processing, switching, amplification, and sensing. Even though
Photonics
Physics measurement techniques
in the plasma deflect the beam's trajectory and the deflection causes modulation in the intensity profile. From the intensity profile, one can measure
Plasma_diagnostics
Study of the separation, identification, and quantification of matter
resonance spectroscopy, photoemission spectroscopy, Mössbauer spectroscopy and so on. Mass spectrometry measures mass-to-charge ratio of molecules using electric
Analytical_chemistry
Range of frequencies or wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation
energy to ionize atoms. Throughout most of the electromagnetic spectrum, spectroscopy can be used to separate waves of different frequencies, so that the intensity
Electromagnetic_spectrum
Technique in spectroscopy
Solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (ssNMR) is a spectroscopy technique used to characterize atomic-level structure and dynamics in solid materials
Solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance
Solid-state_nuclear_magnetic_resonance
Electronic structure imaging method
These spatial modulations are effectively Friedel oscillations, except that Friedel oscillations describe the modulation in the charge density rather
Quasiparticle interference imaging
Quasiparticle_interference_imaging
Concept relating to waves and signals
Examples are the range of electron energy in electron spectroscopy or the range of mass-to-charge ratio in mass spectrometry. In Latin, spectrum means
Spectrum_(physical_sciences)
Screening phenomenon in metals
wavelength range near the Fermi energy are scattered resulting in a density modulation around the impurity of the form ρ ( r ) = ρ 0 + δ n cos ( 2 k F | r
Friedel_oscillations
Type of microscopy
function of their mutual separation. This can be applied to perform force spectroscopy, to measure the mechanical properties of the sample, such as the sample's
Atomic_force_microscopy
since 1967. Photo-reflectance is a particularly convenient type of modulation spectroscopy, as it may be performed at room temperature and only requires the
Photo-reflectance
Bound state of three charged particles
PMID 10879528. Luca Sapienza; et al. (2016). "Magneto-optical spectroscopy of single charge-tunable InAs/GaAs quantum dots emitting at telecom wavelengths"
Trion_(physics)
Range 300-3000 GHz of the electromagnetic spectrum
generation and manipulation is still in its infancy. The generation and modulation of electromagnetic waves in this frequency range ceases to be possible
Terahertz_radiation
High-energy particle, mainly originating outside the Solar System
point-like extra-galactic sources distributed over the celestial sphere. Solar modulation theory explains how the intensity of cosmic rays changes as they travel
Cosmic_ray
Polymer matrix capable of ion conduction
characterization of conductive polymers. Complex impedance spectroscopy, also known as dielectric spectroscopy, enables characterization of the conductivity and
Polymer_electrolytes
NASA satellite of the Explorer program
only detections by the photoelectric effect, but inherent spectroscopy through the charge deposition of the incoming ray. The crystals were housed in
Reuven Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager
Reuven_Ramaty_High_Energy_Solar_Spectroscopic_Imager
Timing of substance within a medium
and reference arms can be measured by ToF methods, such as frequency modulation followed by phase shift measurement or cross correlation of signals. Such
Time_of_flight
System that converts an analog signal into a digital signal
such ADCs use sine wave or square wave frequency modulation; others use pulse-frequency modulation. Such ADCs were once the most popular way to show
Analog-to-digital_converter
Microscopy technique
the excitation light through the fiber to realize tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (TERS) at tip apex, and collect the Raman signals through the same fiber
Near-field scanning optical microscope
Near-field_scanning_optical_microscope
Branch of physics
the use of self-focusing as a mechanism to mode-lock laser. Self-phase modulation (SPM), an effect due to the optical Kerr effect (and possibly higher-order
Nonlinear_optics
Electronic component
structure related to the band structure of the solid. Sophisticated modulation spectroscopy measurement methods based upon modulating the crystal structure
Capacitor
Differential absorption of circularly polarized light in a magnetic field
ordinary beam. This modulation converts the linearly polarized light into circularly polarized light at the peaks of the modulation cycle. Linearly polarized
Magnetic_circular_dichroism
Plasma confinement device
heating system Electron cyclotron emission radiometers Charge exchange recombination spectroscopy Interferometer Motional Stark effect Heavy ion beam probe
Helically Symmetric Experiment
Helically_Symmetric_Experiment
Chemical compound
Martin; Polak, Mark; Saykally, Richard J. (March 1986). "Velocity modulation laser spectroscopy of vibrationally excited CF+ determination of the molecular
Fluoromethylidynium
Study of physics on quintillionth-second timescales
high-energy pulses (e.g. gas-filled hollow-core fiber via self-phase modulation) (1996), mirror-dispersion-controlled technology (chirped mirrors) (1994)
Attosecond_physics
Study of light on the nanometer scale
also allows sensitive spectroscopy measurements of even single molecules located in the hot-spot, unlike traditional spectroscopy methods which take an
Nanophotonics
Branch of microscopy
scanning quantum dot microscopy SVM, scanning voltage microscopy FMM, force modulation microscopy TAFM, Tomographic AFM STM, scanning tunneling microscopy BEEM
Scanning_probe_microscopy
Chemical element with atomic number 37 (Rb)
discovered rubidium in 1861 by the newly developed technique, flame spectroscopy. The name comes from the Latin word rubidus, meaning deep red, the color
Rubidium
Polyatomic ion (H3, charge +1)
which was of the ν2 fundamental band (see #Spectroscopy) using a technique called frequency modulation detection. This started the search for extraterrestrial
Trihydrogen_cation
Type of microscopic technique used for imaging surfaces by tunneling of photons
coupled with techniques such as photoluminescence, absorption, and Raman spectroscopy. Conventional optical microscopy utilizing far-field illumination achieves
Photon_scanning_microscopy
Hexagonal lattice made of carbon atoms
nitrogen-containing functional groups and analyzed by infrared spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. However, the determination of structures of graphene
Graphene
Converts light into current
photodiodes, intensified charge-coupled devices or photomultiplier tubes are used for applications such as astronomy, spectroscopy, night vision equipment
Photodiode
Electronic states at the surface of materials
states is angle resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES) or angle resolved ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (ARUPS). The surface state dispersion
Surface_states
Reconnaissance System Afocal system Air-to-air missile Anti-ship missile Applied spectroscopy Atmospheric Infrared Sounder Bipolar outflow Blackbody infrared radiative
Index_of_infrared_articles
Photoluminescent particles
surface plasmon coupling, dielectric superlensing modulation, and resonant dielectric metasurface modulation have been widely employed for nanophotonic control
Upconverting_nanoparticles
Imaging and diffraction using electrons that pass through samples
including conventional imaging, scanning TEM imaging (STEM), diffraction, spectroscopy, and combinations of these. Even within conventional imaging, there are
Transmission electron microscopy
Transmission_electron_microscopy
Type of superconducting quantum bit
dependence − I δ {\displaystyle -I\,\delta } , modulated by the washboard modulation − I 0 cos δ {\displaystyle -I_{0}\,\cos \delta } . The zero voltage
Phase_qubit
Elementary particle or quantum of light
research area, with topics such as two-photon absorption, self-phase modulation, modulational instability and optical parametric oscillators. However, such processes
Photon
Antimatter research project
C. L.; Charlton, M.; Doser, M. (30 July 2008). "Temporally Controlled Modulation of Antihydrogen Production and the Temperature Scaling of Antiproton-Positron
ATHENA_experiment
Ukrainian physicist
Thermal effects in point contacts have been studied, and modulation point contact spectroscopy has been developed. The effects caused by ultra-high current
Yurii_G._Naidyuk
Physical magneto-optical phenomenon
of fluxons in thin films. Faraday rotators can be used for amplitude modulation of light, and are the basis of optical isolators and optical circulators;
Faraday_effect
Lithographic technique that uses a scanning beam of electrons
Wei-Su; Tsai, Ming-Jinn; Ku, Tzu-Kun (2013). "Sidewall profile inclination modulation mask (SPIMM): modification of an attenuated phase-shift mask for single-exposure
Electron-beam_lithography
Theory of a quantum origin of consciousness
addition, modulation of microtubule stability has been reported during anthracene general anesthesia of tadpoles. The study, called "Direct Modulation of Microtubule
Orchestrated objective reduction
Orchestrated_objective_reduction
Imaging Instrument
sample can be obtained by sweeping the bias voltage (along with a small AC modulation to directly measure the derivative) and measuring current change at a
Scanning_tunneling_microscope
Electro reflectance
be the case. The new conclusion was that the effect had to come from a modulation of the near-surface layer of the gold. When an electric field is applied
Electroreflectance
Periodic structure of layers of two or more materials
z-direction) to an additional modulation potential V(x,y). Contrary to the classical superlattices (1D/3D, that is 1D modulation of electrons in 3D bulk) described
Superlattice
Quantity in solid-state physics
voltage. This approximation ignores the Early effect (channel length modulation), among other things. In practice, this technique may underestimate the
Electron_mobility
Invention of new medications based on knowledge of a biological target
design (also called reverse pharmacology) begins with a hypothesis that modulation of a specific biological target may have therapeutic value. In order for
Drug_design
American scientist and explorer (born 1941)
for X-ray spectroscopy, including the Doppler-tuned XRay spectrometer, the electron ring accelerator as a spectroscopic source, laser modulation of electron
Robert_Schmieder
Organometallic compound: Fe(II) sandwiched between two cyclopentadienyl rings
confirmed the structure through X-ray crystallography and later by NMR spectroscopy. The "sandwich" structure of ferrocene was very novel and led to intensive
Ferrocene
Indian space observatory
information on polarisation. Polarised X-rays will produce an azimuthal modulation in the count rate as opposed to uniform azimuthal distribution of count
XPoSat
English physicist and inventor (1802–1875)
solid bodies, such as glass, or metal, or sonorous wood, convey the modulations with high velocity, and he conceived the plan of transmitting sound-signals
Charles_Wheatstone
Subdiscipline of medicine employing interaction of drugs with light for drug delivery
regulating the activity of drugs in vivo by using light. The light-based modulation is achieved by incorporating molecular photoswitches such as azobenzene
Photopharmacology
Technique for determining surface structures
components of charge density in the reciprocal (momentum) space, and that the incoming electrons scatter at these density modulations within the crystal
Low-energy electron diffraction
Low-energy_electron_diffraction
Behaviour of travelling radio waves
Frederic; Wallace, Vincent P. (2018). Principles of Terahertz Time-Domain Spectroscopy: An introductory textbook. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. p. 18. ISBN 9781351356367
Radio_propagation
Chemical compound
nonlinear refractive index in a Ta2O5 rib waveguide using self-phase modulation". Optics Express. 12 (21): 5110–5116. Bibcode:2004OExpr..12.5110T. doi:10
Tantalum_pentoxide
How the term nonmetal is used in many disciplines
Ping (2018). "Recent progress in the phase-transition mechanism and modulation of vanadium dioxide materials". NPG Asia Materials. 10 (7): 581–605. Bibcode:2018npjAM
Nonmetallic_material
Type of DNA damage
important role in the reaction. Studies by time-resolved absorption spectroscopy revealed that in thymine single strands CPDs are formed within 1 picosecond
Pyrimidine_dimer
Type of electromagnetic radiation
Frederic; Wallace, Vincent P. (2018). Principles of Terahertz Time-Domain Spectroscopy: An Introductory Textbook. CRC Press. p. 18. ISBN 9781351356367. Archived
Radio_wave
Device that emits light via optical amplification
intentionally turned on and off at some rate to create pulses of light. When the modulation rate is on time scales much slower than the cavity lifetime and the period
Laser
other. Such shifting may be referred to as frequency modulation or, more colloquially, just modulation. Modulators used in ELS may include piezo-actuated
Electrophoretic light scattering
Electrophoretic_light_scattering
State of an immobilized atom in chemistry
Effective Correlation Energy of Defects in Semiconductors: Optical Modulation Spectroscopy of Dangling Bonds". Physical Review Letters. 54 (16): 1844–1847
Dangling_bond
Method of observing gaseous atomic structure
built up. GED is one of two experimental methods (besides microwave spectroscopy) to determine the structure of free molecules, undistorted by intermolecular
Gas_electron_diffraction
Type of field where the net flow of electromagnetic energy is zero
usually called a power divider in the case of microwave transmission and modulation. Evanescent-wave coupling is synonymous with near field interaction in
Evanescent_field
Quasiparticle of charge oscillations in condensed matter
integration. Surface plasmons can play a role in surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy and in explaining anomalies in diffraction from metal gratings (Wood's
Plasmon
Concept in quantum mechanics
A quantum well is a potential well wherein the energy spectrum of charge carriers is discrete. As opposed to a bulk region, wherein the carriers are free
Quantum_well
necessarily the same as the object's synodic day or sidereal day. rotational modulation A phenomenon which causes the luminosity of a star to vary as rotation
Glossary_of_astronomy
Magnetic materials with specific magnetic order
helimagnets from conical magnets, (e.g. Holmium below 20 K) which have spiral modulation in addition to a permanent magnetic moment. Helimagnets can be characterized
Helimagnetism
fundamental particles of nature have minimal vibrational motion. absorption spectroscopy Any of various spectroscopic techniques that measure the absorption of
Glossary_of_physics
Research and scientific development company
spectral efficiency in an optical communications field trial with a new modulation technique. Antero Taivalsaari became a Bell Labs Fellow in 2016 for his
Bell_Labs
Materials scientist
formation in membranes made of unsaturated lipids whereas it yields membrane modulation in saturated lipids, suggesting new design strategies for antimicrobial
Ádám_Mechler
Type of semiconductor laser diode
edge-emitting lasers. The low threshold current also permits high intrinsic modulation bandwidths in VCSELs. The wavelength of VCSELs may be tuned, within the
Vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser
Vertical-cavity_surface-emitting_laser
Ordered array of colloidal particles
photonics includes the emission, transmission, amplification, detection, modulation, and switching of lightwaves over a broad range of frequencies and wavelengths
Colloidal_crystal
Alternative to silicon-based photovoltaics
inorganic-organic perovskite via Circular Dichroism (CD) spectroscopy, reveals two regions. One represents the charge transfer between the ligand and the nanoplatelet
Perovskite_solar_cell
Type of high-temperature superconductor
Xingjiang; Wang, Yayu (January 12, 2021). "Evolution of Charge and Pair Density Modulations in Overdoped B i 2 S r 2 C u O 6 + δ {\displaystyle {\mathrm
Cuprate_superconductor
Extremely small sensors
samples. A principle of operation of these sensors is based on the chemical modulation of a hydrogel film volume that incorporates a Bragg grating. As the hydrogel
Nanosensor
German physicist
atomic resolution on Silicon 7x7 by force microscopy using frequency-modulation atomic force microscopy in noncontact mode with large amplitudes (Science
Franz_Josef_Giessibl
Supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way
Sgr A* is likely a black hole. In 1994, infrared and sub-millimetre spectroscopy studies by a Berkeley team involving Nobel Laureate Charles H. Townes
Sagittarius_A*
ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy), such as in absorption intensity and wavelength or in chirality (using circularly polarized light, and CD spectroscopy). In contrast
Molecular_sensor
Laser using electron beam in vacuum as gain medium
field via the ponderomotive force. This energy modulation evolves into electron density (current) modulations with a period of one optical wavelength. The
Free-electron_laser
stellar spectroscopy, stellar atmospheres and observable effects of stellar evolution. Her later interests were the ultraviolet and optical spectroscopy of
Meanings of minor-planet names: 8001–9000
Meanings_of_minor-planet_names:_8001–9000
time Charge-exchange ionization Charge-induced voltage alteration Charge (physics) Charge carrier Charge carrier density Charge conservation Charge contrast
Index_of_physics_articles_(C)
have been useful in scientific applications, such as remote sensing and spectroscopy. Development of metamaterials has traversed the electromagnetic spectrum
Terahertz_metamaterial
Photoexciation and similar effects
metals, insulators, semiconductors are studied using coherent optical spectroscopy and such experiments and their theoretical analysis has revealed a wealth
Coherent effects in semiconductor optics
Coherent_effects_in_semiconductor_optics
Neutrino physics experiment in Italy
solar neutrino data. An improvement in the sensitivity to the seasonal modulation of the solar neutrino signal was also reported in 2017. That same year
Borexino
Compound of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen
that phase modulation and amplitude modulation can be achieved simultaneously, which are attributed to the giant refractive index modulation and the variable
Graphite_oxide
Non-destructive type of ultrasonics
imaging Acoustics Ultrasound Phonons Soliton Waves Light Time-resolved spectroscopy Stress Strain Photoelasticity Anisotropy Thomsen, C.; Strait, J.; Vardeny
Picosecond_ultrasonics
Wire with a diameter in the nanometres
allows for nanometer-scale morphological control via rapid in situ dopant modulation. A single-step vapour phase reaction at elevated temperature synthesises
Nanowire
their activation mechanisms and local and systemic, control and feedback modulation. He also modelled the cell electrolyte homeostasis underpinning these
Christopher_L.-H._Huang
Technique to investigate atomic structures using neutron scattering
nanoparticle-polymer composite gratings with extremely large neutron refractive index modulation". In McLeod, Robert R; Tomita, Yasuo; Sheridan, John T; Pascual Villalobos
Neutron_diffraction
Method of spatial measurement using laser
Carsten; Brydegaard, Mikkel (2017-05-14). "Multispectral polarimetric modulation spectroscopy for species and sex determination of Malaria disease vectors".
Lidar
Class of devices for nanoscale functionality
key platform to design tunable NEMS owing to the availability of active modulation of Young's modulus. The global market of NEMS is projected to reach $108
Nanoelectromechanical_systems
matter Self-mixing interferometry Self-organized criticality Self-phase modulation Self-propagating high-temperature synthesis Sellafield Sellmeier equation
Index_of_physics_articles_(S)
CHARGE MODULATION-SPECTROSCOPY
CHARGE MODULATION-SPECTROSCOPY
Girl/Female
American, British, English, French, Indian, Sindhi, Swedish
Modern Form of Charles; Manly; Little and Womanly; Free
Girl/Female
French, German
Pure; Little and Womanly; Female Version of Charles or Carl
Female
English
Pet form of English Charlene, CHARLA means "man."
Male
English
Variant spelling of English Clark, CLARKE means "clerk, secretary."
Girl/Female
American, Australian, British, Christian, English, French, German, Gujarati, Hindu, Indian, Kannada
From Charlotte; Little and Womanly; Female Version of Charles; Carl; Beautiful
Girl/Female
Australian, French
Feminine of Charles
Male
English
English unisex name derived from the vocabulary word, CHANCE means "chance."Â
Boy/Male
American, Australian, British, Celebrity, Chinese, Christian, Danish, English, French, German, Hindu, Indian, Jamaican
Handsome; Manly; Form of Charles; Strong; Free-woman
Girl/Female
French
Feminine of Charles meaning manly.
Male
English
Variant spelling of English unisex Charlie, CHARLEY means "man."
Girl/Female
Arabic, Muslim
Population
Girl/Female
African, American, Australian, British, English, German, Swedish
Strong and Womanly; Modern Form of Charles
Boy/Male
American, Australian, British, Danish, English, French, German, Swedish
Manly; Strong; Diminutive of Charles; Free Man
Girl/Female
American, Australian, British, English, German
Farmer; Modern Form of Charles; Manly
Girl/Female
Australian, French
Darling; Similar to Cherie Dear One
Girl/Female
Gujarati, Hindu, Indian
Derived from Bharg; A Queen of the Bhargs the Clan of Warriors
Surname or Lastname
English
English : variant spelling of Charley.
Male
English
Unisex pet form of English Charles and Charlene, CHARLIE means "man."
Male
English
English and French form of German Karl, CHARLES means "man."
Girl/Female
English Greek
Blend of Cherie and Cerise. Dear one; darling.
CHARGE MODULATION-SPECTROSCOPY
CHARGE MODULATION-SPECTROSCOPY
Girl/Female
Hindu, Indian, Kannada, Marathi, Telugu
Beautiful Jewel
Boy/Male
Hindu
Darkness, Long-lived
Boy/Male
Muslim
The giver of life
Girl/Female
Hindi
King of the demons.
Boy/Male
American, Australian, British, Chinese, Christian
A Deep, Glossy Black; Jet Black Gem; Coal Black
Girl/Female
Indian, Sanskrit
Extremely Intelligent; Very Clever
Girl/Female
Hindu, Indian, Marathi
Accomplished
Boy/Male
Tamil
Rudrashak | à®°à¯à®¤à¯à®°à®¾à®·à®•
Girl/Female
Christian, German, Swedish
Noble; Kind; Brightness
Boy/Male
Indian, Punjabi, Sikh
Brave in the Battlefield
CHARGE MODULATION-SPECTROSCOPY
CHARGE MODULATION-SPECTROSCOPY
CHARGE MODULATION-SPECTROSCOPY
CHARGE MODULATION-SPECTROSCOPY
CHARGE MODULATION-SPECTROSCOPY
n.
The act of modulating, or the state of being modulated; as, the modulation of the voice.
n.
See Charge, n., 17.
v. t.
To lay on or impose, as a task, duty, or trust; to command, instruct, or exhort with authority; to enjoin; to urge earnestly; as, to charge a jury; to charge the clergy of a diocese; to charge an agent.
n.
Calmness of mind; equanimity; as, to bear adversity with moderation.
pl.
of Charge d'affaires
v. t.
To place something to the account of as a debt; to debit, as, to charge one with goods. Also, to enter upon the debit side of an account; as, to charge a sum to one.
v. i.
To make an onset or rush; as, to charge with fixed bayonets.
v. i.
To debit on an account; as, to charge for purchases.
v. t.
An address (esp. an earnest or impressive address) containing instruction or exhortation; as, the charge of a judge to a jury; the charge of a bishop to his clergy.
n.
The whole number of people, or inhabitants, in a country, or portion of a country; as, a population of ten millions.
v. t.
A position (of a weapon) fitted for attack; as, to bring a weapon to the charge.
v. t.
To impute or ascribe; to lay to one's charge.
imp. & p. p.
of Charge
n.
A charge.
v. t.
To charge (with); to impose (a charge) upon.
n.
An instrument for measuring or inserting a charge.
v. t.
To assume as a bearing; as, he charges three roses or; to add to or represent on; as, he charges his shield with three roses or.
n.
A change of key, whether transient, or until the music becomes established in the new key; a shifting of the tonality of a piece, so that the harmonies all center upon a new keynote or tonic; the art of transition out of the original key into one nearly related, and so on, it may be, by successive changes, into a key quite remote. There are also sudden and unprepared modulations.
v. i.
To demand a price; as, to charge high for goods.
v. t.
To ornament with or cause to bear; as, to charge an architectural member with a molding.