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The cost-loss model, also called the cost/loss model or the cost-loss decision model, is a model used to understand how the predicted probability of adverse
Cost-loss_model
Radio propagation model
The COST Hata model is a radio propagation model (i.e. path loss) that extends the urban Hata model (which in turn is based on the Okumura model) to cover
COST_Hata_model
Mathematical relation assigning a probability event to a cost
In mathematical optimization and decision theory, a loss function or cost function (sometimes also called an error function) is a function that maps an
Loss_function
US accounting standard
Current Expected Credit Losses (CECL) is a credit loss accounting standard (model) that was issued by the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB)
Current Expected Credit Losses
Current_Expected_Credit_Losses
Benefit lost by a choice between options
In microeconomic theory, the opportunity cost of a choice is the value of the best alternative forgone where, given limited resources, a choice needs to
Opportunity_cost
Business model
commercial nuclear power industry, the business model has centered on selling the reactor at cost (or at a loss) and making its profits off fuel-supply contracts
Razor-and-blades_model
Product sold below cost to stimulate other, more profitable sales
and BMC priced the better-equipped models (which cost from £537) to make a small profit, using the basic car as a loss-leader to allow the promotion of
Loss_leader
Airline with generally lower fares
low ticket prices and limited services regardless of their operating models. Low-cost carriers should not be confused with regional airlines that operate
Low-cost_carrier
Statistical law in machine learning
include the number of parameters, training dataset size, and training cost. Some models also exhibit performance gains by scaling inference through increased
Neural_scaling_law
Lost economic efficiency
real production cost of $0.10. The difference between the cost of production and the purchase price then creates the "deadweight loss" to society. A tax
Deadweight_loss
Asset whose market value is lower than that listed in its owner's balance sheet
governed by IAS 36. The impairment cost is calculated using either the Incurred Loss Model or the Expected Loss Model. An investment is recognized as impaired
Impaired_asset
Unrecoverable cost that has been incurred
In economics and business decision-making, a sunk cost (also known as retrospective cost) is a cost that has already been incurred and cannot be recovered
Sunk_cost
Type of machine learning model
1.5-billion-parameter model) in 2019 cost $50,000, while training of the PaLM (i.e. a 540-billion-parameter model) in 2022 cost $8 million, and Megatron-Turing
Large_language_model
Large language model designed for reasoning tasks
capabilities even in small models. In January 2025, DeepSeek released R1, a model with performance comparable to o1, at a lower cost. The release demonstrated
Reasoning_model
International financial reporting standard
of PPE is carried at its cost less any accumulated depreciation and accumulated impairment losses. Under the revaluation model, an item whose fair value
IAS_16
Cost accounting model
Cost–volume–profit (CVP), in managerial economics, is a form of cost accounting. It is a simplified model, useful for elementary instruction and for short-run
Cost–volume–profit_analysis
Original monetary value of an item
model is an International Accounting Standards Board approved alternative basic accounting model to the traditional historical cost accounting model.
Historical_cost
Method of apportioning costs
consumption by each. Therefore, this model assigns more indirect costs (overhead) into direct costs compared to conventional costing. The UK's Chartered Institute
Activity-based_costing
Model used by cost accountants to determine profit
equals sales minus costs, it provides a structure for modeling cost elements such as materials, losses, multi-products, learning, depreciation etc. It provides
Profit_model
Radio propagation model
The Hata model is a radio propagation model for predicting the path loss of cellular transmissions in exterior environments, valid for frequencies from
Hata_model
Large language model by Meta AI (2023–2026)
Language Model Meta AI" serving as a backronym) is a family of large language models (LLMs) released by Meta AI starting in February 2023. Llama models come
Llama_(language_model)
Method for optimizing information security investments
The Gordon-Loeb model provides a framework for determining how much to invest in cybersecurity, using a cost-benefit approach. The model includes the following
Gordon–Loeb_model
Artificial intelligence model paradigm
examples of foundation models. Building foundation models is often highly resource-intensive, with the most advanced models costing hundreds of millions
Foundation_model
Methodology for assessing environmental impacts
§ Life cycle assessment and best practices Overlapping generations model True cost accounting Water footprint Ilgin, Mehmet Ali; Gupta, Surendra M. (2010)
Life-cycle_assessment
Aspect of decision and prospect theories
originally coined the term "loss aversion" in their initial proposal of prospect theory as an alternative descriptive model of decision making under risk
Loss_aversion
Information-theoretic measure
the current model. This is also known as the log loss (or logarithmic loss or logistic loss); the terms "log loss" and "cross-entropy loss" are used interchangeably
Cross-entropy
Bolt action rifle
Arms engineer Merle "Mike" Walker designed lower-cost alternatives to the Model 30, resulting in the Model 721. These used a cylindrical receiver produced
Remington_Model_700
Type of financial statement
An income statement or profit and loss (P&L) account is one of the financial statements of a company and shows the company's revenues and expenses during
Income_statement
Procedures to optimize practices in cost efficient ways
Management accounting IT cost transparency Kaizen costing Profit model Vanderbeck, Edward J. (February 2012). Principles of Cost Accounting - Edward J.
Cost_accounting
Estimation of the cost of a project
A cost estimate is the approximation of the cost of a program, project, or operation. The cost estimate is the product of the cost estimating process.
Cost_estimate
Protection from financial loss
loss: The size of the loss must be meaningful from the perspective of the insured. Insurance premiums need to cover both the expected cost of losses,
Insurance
Independent examination of an organization
of Cost and Management Accountants, a cost audit is “an examination of cost accounting records and verification of facts to ascertain that the cost of
Audit
to improve the overall transmission efficiency with minimum cost. Performance modelling is the abstraction of a real system into a simplified representation
Performance and modelling of AC transmission
Performance_and_modelling_of_AC_transmission
Signal attenuation in telecommunications
and averaged losses along typical classes of radio links. Among the most commonly used such methods are Okumura–Hata, the COST Hata model, W.C.Y.Lee, etc
Path_loss
Cost of a company's funds
In economics and accounting, the cost of capital is the cost of a company's funds (both debt and equity), or from an investor's point of view is "the
Cost_of_capital
problem (similar to the Weighted sum model) The cost matrix is a crucial element within cost-sensitive modeling, explicitly defining the costs or benefits
Cost-sensitive machine learning
Cost-sensitive_machine_learning
Accounting standard
accounting model being developed by the IASB for insurance contracts. There were also concerns that the criteria for qualifying for the amortized cost category
IFRS_9
Response to loss in humans and other animals
following loss and begin to adapt to this post-loss life. The Model offers a better understanding of the duration of time in the wake of one's loss and the
Grief
Total cost of ownership over the life of an asset
Whole-life cost is the total cost of ownership over the life of an asset.[clarification needed] The concept is also known as life-cycle cost (LCC) or lifetime
Whole-life_cost
Electric compact crossover SUV
vehicles (both Model 3 and Model Y) were recalled to address possible loss of power to electronic power-assisted steering. 48 Model 3 and Model Y vehicles
Tesla_Model_Y
Budget of Olympic Games
historically had the highest costs and expenses for the hosts, with the estimated cost of the 2016 Summer Games in Rio de Janeiro being at approximately US$11.1
Cost_of_the_Olympic_Games
Economic model of competition
prices exceed marginal cost. The model was not formalized by Bertrand; however, the idea was developed into a mathematical model by Francis Ysidro Edgeworth
Bertrand_competition
Total economic cost of production
of 0. The total cost of producing a specific level of output is the cost of all the factors of production. Often, economists use models with two inputs:
Total_cost
Costs that would disappear if things were perfect
Cost of poor quality (COPQ), poor quality costs (PQC), cost of nonquality, Cost of Quality (QOQ), Cost of Current Quality (COCQ) are costs that would disappear
Cost_of_poor_quality
Unit selling price minus its variable cost
slope of the profit line. Cost-Volume-Profit Analysis (CVP): assuming the linear CVP model, the computation of Profit and Loss (Net Income) reduces as follows:
Contribution_margin
Partial or total inability to hear
subscription-based hearing aid models. These typically bundle device costs, servicing, and follow-up care into a monthly fee, reducing the upfront cost of treatment. As
Hearing_loss
Internal representation of world by AI
embeddings well-behaved. The model trains by minimizing prediction error in embedding space. This approach avoids the high cost of generating every detail
World model (artificial intelligence)
World_model_(artificial_intelligence)
OpenAI text-to-video models (2024–2026)
Sora was a text-to-video model and social media app developed by OpenAI. Using artificial intelligence, the model generated short video clips based on
Sora_(text-to-video_model)
American car (1908–1927)
very costly" (going from reducing Model T cost to increasing Model A price) "From the time it introduced the Model A, Ford was compelled to compete on
Ford_Model_T
Machine learning technique for privacy-preserving training
Update model: 12. θₜ₊₁ ← θₜ − ηₜ g̃ₜ 13. '''end for''' 14. '''return''' θ_T and privacy cost (ε, δ) A loss function measures how wrong a model's predictions
Differentially private stochastic gradient descent
Differentially_private_stochastic_gradient_descent
Computational model used in machine learning
mean squared error (MSE) cost function can use formal statistical methods to determine the confidence of the trained model. The MSE on a validation set
Neural network (machine learning)
Neural_network_(machine_learning)
Process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them
least-cost in some sense. Models can be international, regional, national, municipal, or stand-alone in scope. Governments maintain national energy models for
Energy_modeling
Retail store chain in the United States
management of the franchise operation had decided that the business model of Cost Plus was too oriented toward sales from their large store in San Francisco
World_Market_(store)
Mathematical model to assist inventory levels
The newsvendor (or newsboy or single-period or salvageable) model is a mathematical model in operations management and applied economics used to determine
Newsvendor_model
Financial estimate; accounting concept
Total cost of ownership (TCO) is a financial estimate intended to help buyers and owners determine the direct and indirect costs of a product or service
Total_cost_of_ownership
Foundation model allowing control of robot actions
In robot learning, a vision–language–action model (VLA) is a class of multimodal foundation models that integrates vision, language and actions. Given
Vision–language–action_model
Cost accounting method
and loss account Externalities Genuine Progress Indicator Opportunity cost Pollution credit Social cost Total cost Total cost of ownership True cost accounting
Environmental full-cost accounting
Environmental_full-cost_accounting
Accounting framework
terms such as full-cost accounting, natural capital and social capital, the prospect of formal metrics for ecological and social loss or risk has grown
Triple_bottom_line
Form of corporate self-regulation aimed at contributing to social or charitable goals
economic value created by the organization after deducting the cost of all inputs, including the cost of the capital (unlike accounting definitions of profit)
Corporate social responsibility
Corporate_social_responsibility
Process of determining what a company will receive in exchange for its products
account the price at which it could acquire the goods, the manufacturing cost, the marketplace, competition, market condition, brand, and quality of the
Pricing
Category of cloud computing
for a one-time cost, but this model is declining in popularity. A few SaaS products have open source code, called open SaaS. This model can provide advantages
Software_as_a_service
Electric mid-size sedan
plans for the Model 3 are part of Tesla's three-step strategy to start with a high-price vehicle and move progressively towards lower-cost vehicles, while
Tesla_Model_3
Research tools for understanding depressive symptoms in non-human animals
loss of energy, aches, pains, or digestive problems that are resistant to treatment may also be present. It is difficult to develop an animal model that
Animal_models_of_depression
Cost of making any trade
In economics, a transaction cost is a cost incurred when making an economic trade when participating in a market. The idea that transactions form the basis
Transaction_cost
Calculation of financial risk
outstanding loan $75 current home value $70 liquidation cost $10 Loss given default = Magnitude of likely loss on the exposure / Exposure at default -$75 loan
Expected_loss
Concept to address adverse effects of climate change
Hsiang, Solomon (25 March 2026). "Quantifying climate loss and damage consistent with a social cost of carbon". Nature. 651: 959–966. doi:10.1038/s41586-026-10272-6
Loss and damage (climate change)
Loss_and_damage_(climate_change)
Machine learning technique
gradient-boosted trees model is built in stages, but it generalizes the other methods by allowing optimization of an arbitrary differentiable loss function. The
Gradient_boosting
2020 text-generating language model
Microsoft's Turing NLG, the next largest NLP model known at the time. Lambdalabs estimated a hypothetical cost of around $4.6 million US dollars and 355
GPT-3
implication of the Williamson model is that the gains from cost reduction do not have to be "large" in order to outweigh the losses that result from higher
Williamson_tradeoff_model
Chatbot developed by Google
and cost-effective, high-throughput variants ("Flash") to high-compute models designed for complex reasoning ("Pro" and "Ultra"). The 1.5 and 3 model generations
Google_Gemini
Technique for the generative modeling of a continuous probability distribution
diffusion models, also known as diffusion-based generative models or score-based generative models, are a class of latent variable generative models. A diffusion
Diffusion_model
Accounting for investments made in people
management and decision-making. The cost approach of human resource accounting involves an acquisition cost model (the cost of acquiring an employee where
Human_resource_accounting
Total cost of holding inventory
In marketing, carrying cost, carrying cost of inventory or holding cost refers to the total cost of holding inventory. This includes warehousing costs
Carrying_cost
Generative AI chatbot by OpenAI
Originally released on November 30, 2022, the product uses large language models—specifically generative pre-trained transformers (GPTs)—to generate text
ChatGPT
Measure of the profitability of a business venture
on a P & L (profit and loss) account: Sales revenue = price (of product) × quantity sold Gross profit = sales revenue − cost of sales and other direct
Net_income
Overview of finance and finance-related topics
discount factor / rate Cost of capital Weighted average cost of capital Cost of equity Cost of debt Capital asset pricing model Beta (finance) § Empirical
Outline_of_finance
Description of how businesses operate
products business model") was introduced in the early 20th century. This involves offering a basic product at a very low cost, often at a loss (the "bait")
Business_model
Framework in macroeconomics
old generation. Karl Shell Macroeconomic model First welfare theorem Life-cycle assessment Life-cycle cost analysis Walrasian equilibrium Imrohoroglu
Overlapping_generations_model
American electric vehicle and clean energy company
first car model, the Roadster sports car, in 2008; the Model S sedan in 2012; the Model X SUV in 2015; the Model 3 sedan in 2017; the Model Y crossover
Tesla,_Inc.
Training methods used after LLM pretraining
preference-learning objective as a classification loss and avoided the separately trained reward model and online policy-gradient stage used in a common
Post-training of large language models
Post-training_of_large_language_models
Member of groups without whose support the organization would cease to exist
criticized as creating a false dichotomy between the "shareholder model" and the "stakeholder model", or a false analogy of the obligations towards shareholders
Stakeholder_(corporate)
Graphic of a systems development lifecycle
frictional loss between user, acquirer, supplier and developer is reduced. The systems engineering process (SEP) provides a path for improving the cost-effectiveness
V-model
AI that generates content
researchers have demonstrated that open-source models can be fine-tuned to remove their safety restrictions at low cost. In 2025, Israel signed a $6 million contract
Generative_AI
method Over-dispersed Poisson (ODP) model Hertig's log-normal chain ladder model Separation method Average cost per claim methods Bornhuetter–Ferguson
Loss_reserving
Building by Richard Rogers in London
Rostrum. Also on the ground floor is the loss book which for 300 years has had entries of significant losses entered by quill. The Underwriting Room (often
Lloyd's_building
Equality of costs and revenues
potential to be viable and at what points. In the linear Cost-Volume-Profit Analysis model (where marginal costs and marginal revenues are constant,
Break-even_point
Any of various types of risk associated with financing
pricing model – Finance model linking expected return to systematic risk Climate-related asset stranding – Former physical asset, now a liability Cost of capital –
Financial_risk
Concept in economics
flotation cost percentage, g {\displaystyle g} is the dividend growth rate. There are 3 ways of calculating Ke: Capital Asset Pricing Model Dividend Discount
Weighted average cost of capital
Weighted_average_cost_of_capital
Light twin-turboprop transport aircraft family
of a line of twin-turboprop aircraft produced by Beechcraft. The Model 200 and Model 300 series were originally marketed as the "Super King Air" family;
Beechcraft_Super_King_Air
Comparison of costs of different electricity generation sources
generating electricity in real time to meet demand. A cost factor unique to storage are losses that occur due to inherent inefficiencies of storing electricity
Cost_of_electricity_by_source
Occupational stress model
The job demands-resources model (JD-R model) is an occupational stress model that suggests strain is a response to imbalance between demands on the individual
Job_demands-resources_model
Series of V8 engines built by Chrysler
chamber is efficient, with an excellent surface-to-volume ratio, minimal heat loss to the cylinder head,[clarification needed] and room for two large valves
Chrysler_Hemi_engine
Social justice theory
factor model. Many researchers have studied organizational justice in terms of the three factor model; while others have used a two factor model in which
Organizational_justice
Electric pickup truck
stainless steel body panels, drawing comparisons to low-polygon computer models. While scheduled for production in late 2021, the vehicle had multiple delays
Tesla_Cybertruck
Statistical modeling method
result in a model that fits the outliers more than the true data due to the higher importance assigned by MSE to large errors. So, cost functions that
Linear_regression
Third generation of Mercedes-Benz E-Class
included Michelin MOExtended run-flat tyres with pressure loss warning system. All three models had an electronically limited top speed of 240 km/h (149 mph)
Mercedes-Benz_E-Class_(W211)
Battery-electric full-size car
and reduce weight and cost. A 2015 study by the Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS) concluded that in U.S. regions where the Model S is popular, its 68 percent
Tesla_Model_S
Accounting model
purchasing power accounting (CPPA) is an accounting model that is an alternative to model historical cost accounting under high inflation and hyper-inflationary
Constant purchasing power accounting
Constant_purchasing_power_accounting
Concept in decision theory
this and other inputs, the model can compute how likely it is the decision maker will miss the flight and what the net cost (in minutes) will be for various
Expected value of including uncertainty
Expected_value_of_including_uncertainty
Type of performance-based marketing
same model in the West. With many affiliates being paid a flat "Cost Per Day" with some networks offering Cost Per Click or CPM. In the case of cost per
Affiliate_marketing
travel, tourism, insurance
COST LOSS-MODEL
COST LOSS-MODEL
COST LOSS-MODEL
COST LOSS-MODEL
COST LOSS-MODEL
COST LOSS-MODEL
COST LOSS-MODEL
COST LOSS-MODEL
COST LOSS-MODEL
travel, tourism, insurance